• Name: B.Tech 2nd Year
• Branch: B.Tech Printing Technology 4th Sem
• Published: Sept. 30, 2025

Applied Science for Packaging Material

Corrugated Board

History

• Corrugated paper was first patented in England in 1856 as a liner for tall hats.
• By 1871, Albert L. Jones patented corrugated board in the U.S. for wrapping bottles and glass chimneys.
• Later, in 1874, Oliver Long improved it by adding liners on both sides of the corrugated sheet, creating what we know as corrugated board.
• By the early 20th century, corrugated board began replacing wooden crates for packaging because it was lightweight, strong, and economical.

 

Introduction to Corrugated Board

• Corrugated board is a packaging material made of one or more layers of fluted (wavy) paper sandwiched between flat liners.
• It provides strength, cushioning, and rigidity, making it the most widely used packaging material globally.
• Used for shipping cartons, protective packaging, and displays.

 

Board Construction

1. Liners
   • Flat sheets on the outside and inside of corrugated board.
   • Made from Kraft paper or recycled paper.
   • Provide surface strength, printing surface, and protection.
2. Flutes (Corrugated Medium)
   • Wavy layer in between liners.
   • Gives cushioning, compressive strength, and rigidity.
3. Laminations (Combination of Liners & Fluting Medium)
   • Single Wall: 2 liners + 1 flute.
   • Double Wall: 3 liners + 2 flutes.
   • Triple Wall: 4 liners + 3 flutes.

 

Flute Design and Selection

• Flute Types (based on height and number per meter):
  • A-Flute: ~4.8 mm thick, good cushioning, used for fragile items.
  • B-Flute: ~2.5–3.2 mm thick, strong in stacking, good for cans/cartons.
  • C-Flute: ~3.6–4 mm thick, common for shipping boxes, balance between cushioning & strength.
  • E-Flute: ~1.5 mm thick, thin & lightweight, good print surface, used for retail packaging.
  • F-Flute: ~0.8 mm thick, very fine, high-quality print, used for luxury or small packs.
• Selection depends on: product weight, stacking strength required, printing needs, and shipping conditions.

 

Manufacturer’s Joint

• The part where one end of the corrugated sheet is joined to the other to form a box.
• Methods:
  • Glued Joint (common, cost-effective).
  • Stitched Joint (metal staples, stronger but less attractive).
  • Taped Joint (less common, fast assembly).

 

Corrugation

• The process of passing Kraft paper through corrugating rolls to form flutes.
• The medium is glued to liners to form corrugated board.

 

Stacking Strength

• Ability of a corrugated box to withstand vertical compressive load without collapsing.
• Depends on:
  • Board grade (single/double/triple wall).
  • Flute type.
  • Moisture content.
  • Box design & manufacturer’s joint.
• Tested by Box Compression Test (BCT).

 

Requirements for Corrugated Fibreboard Boxes

1. Single Wall Board
   • Construction: 2 liners + 1 flute.
   • Uses: Lightweight goods, retail packaging, shipping cartons.
   • Stacking strength: Moderate.
2. Double Wall Board
   • Construction: 3 liners + 2 flutes.
   • Uses: Heavier products, fragile goods, bulk packaging.
   • Stacking strength: High.
3. Triple Wall Board
   • Construction: 4 liners + 3 flutes.
   • Uses: Heavy-duty packaging, industrial goods, export packaging (replacement for wooden crates).
   • Stacking strength: Very high.

 

 

Corrugation board: resists mechanical impact, increase the time of impulsive forces.

Wood: wood pulp (sulphate process – corrugated board).

 

Components of corrugated board

1. Liner
2. Fluting
3. Adhesive

 

The process of running reels of paper into corrugated board is complex process the basic process is to take fluting paper, give it its characteristics wave formation, then stick it to one liner, at a later point in the machine the second liner is applied to fluting, giving to a finished pieces of corrugated board it is than curved cut into the required sizes.

 

Reel stand of the corrugators hold two reels of paper that are used to product corrugated board. There is at least one reel stand per liner and fluting a corrugated board.

Single facer could be considering the heart of corrugators in this section of the machine the actual wave formation of fluting paper is formed, and bonded to one liner surface among single face paper. Single face that has one liner and one fluting formation. Fluting paper is fed into the single facer from fluting reel stand. The paper passes through a set of corrugated rolls which are like two toothed roller. These rollers form and set the fluting paper into characteristic wave shape. At the same time, from the opposite side of the single facer, the inner of corrugated board is being fed into single facer forming reel stand.

 

1. Liner: craft paper of above 80 gsm up to 225 gsm is used preferably. The outermost liner used for a box should be of maximum grammage. Their function are.

1. Resist hazard like punter, burst, abrasion tear etc.
2. Properly hold the fluting medium when one combines.
3. Resists moisture or water either outsider or inside depending on the nature of product to the packed.
4. Be amicable for printing.

Water proof paper such as btumen coated, wax coated are also used for liner.

 

2. Fluting: paper obtained from semi-chemical pulp process are used which proved the good rigidity to the board. Its function are to:-

1. Provide necessary cushioning desired.
2. Provide rigidity to board.
3. Contribute to resistance to bending under stress.

The grammage of fluting medium may be in the region 80-150gsm.

 

3. Adhesive:

1. Usually starch based adhesive are used for joining the outer liner.
2. Sodium silicate are also used.           

 

Classification: board consisting of one or more shades of fluted paper struck to a flat sheet of paper or board between several liners usually craft, this has following:

1. Single face corrugated
2. 3-ply corrugated
3. 5-ply corrugated
4. 7-ply corrugated

 

PACKAGING TECHNOLOGY

Material use in packaging:

1. Paper and board:

1. It is cheaper and easily available.
2. They provide attractive lock of the product.
3. Easily printable.
4. Recyclable and biodegradable.
5. Light and less bulky.

 

Limitation:

1. Resistance to economic impact is comparatively less.
2. Resistance to climatic hazards also limited.

 

Solid Fibre Board and Composite Container

1. Solid Fibre Board

• Definition:
  Solid fibre board is a strong, thick, multi-ply paperboard made by laminating several layers of Kraft paper or recycled board together with adhesive.
• Features:
  • No fluting (unlike corrugated board).
  • High strength and rigidity.
  • Resistant to puncture and tearing.
• Uses:
  • Small shipping containers.
  • Partitions/dividers inside cartons.
  • Protective packaging for heavy products.

 

2. Combination Board

• Definition:
  A packaging board made by combining corrugated fibreboard with solid fibre or other materials to improve specific properties.
• Types:
  • Corrugated + solid fibre (extra strength).
  • Corrugated + plastic film/aluminium foil (moisture/grease resistance).
  • Corrugated + foam (cushioning).
• Uses:
  • Food packaging.
  • Heavy-duty packaging requiring strength + barrier protection.

 

3. Composite Container

• Introduction:
  A rigid container made of two or more materials (paperboard, plastic, metal foil, etc.) wound or formed together into a single structure.
• Construction:
  Usually a spirally wound or convolute wound paperboard tube lined with barrier materials.
• Types of Composite Containers:
  1. Spiral Wound – made by winding layers of paper at an angle.
  2. Convolute Wound – made by wrapping layers straight across.
  3. Crimped End – one end sealed permanently, the other with a lid.
  4. Heat-Sealed End – used for food and beverages.
• Advantages of Composite Containers:
  • Lightweight yet strong.
  • Good barrier against moisture, oxygen, light (with foil or plastic lining).
  • Cost-effective compared to metal cans.
  • Printable surface for branding.
  • Recyclable when designed with paper as main component.
• Uses:
  • Food (chips, biscuits, powdered drinks, spices).
  • Non-food (cosmetics, adhesives, oils, detergents).

 

4. Multiwall Paper Sacks

• Introduction:
  Heavy-duty sacks made from several plies (usually 2–6) of Kraft paper, sometimes with a plastic or foil barrier layer.
• Construction:
  • Open Mouth Sacks – filled through top, then stitched or glued.
  • Valve Sacks – filled through a valve opening; closes automatically when filled.
• Advantages:
  • Strong and flexible.
  • Eco-friendly and recyclable.
  • Lightweight compared to woven sacks or rigid packaging.
  • Good printability for branding.
• Uses:
  • Cement, flour, sugar, animal feed, fertilizers.
  • Bulk powders and granular products.

 

 

UNIT-2

Glass: glass is so much a part of our daily life that we cannot imagine living without it.

 

1. History

• Glass has been used for over 5000 years.
• The earliest glass objects (Egypt & Mesopotamia, ~1500 BC) were beads and ornaments.
• Glass blowing (developed by Romans, 1st century BC) allowed production of bottles and containers.
• In the 20th century, automatic bottle-making machines revolutionized mass production.
• Today, glass remains an important packaging material for beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food.

 

2. Introduction to Glass Materials

• Glass is an inorganic, hard, brittle, transparent material made by fusing silica with other oxides.
• It is non-crystalline (amorphous) but behaves like a solid.
• Widely used in packaging due to clarity, inertness, and barrier properties.

 

3. Composition of Glass

• Main constituents of container glass:
  • Silica (SiO₂) – 70–75% (glass former).
  • Soda (Na₂O) – 12–15% (lowers melting temperature).
  • Lime (CaO) – 10–12% (increases chemical durability).
• Minor oxides: Al₂O₃, MgO, K₂O, Fe₂O₃.

Three main component for glass making:

1. Viz silica sand (SiO2).
2. Soda ash (Na2CO3).
3. Lime (CaCO3).

 

4. Chemical Structure of Glass

• Glass has an amorphous structure (no long-range crystalline order).
• SiO₂ forms a three-dimensional random network of Si–O bonds.
• Modifiers (Na, Ca, Mg) break bonds → make glass workable, while stabilizers provide durability.

 

5. Raw Materials Used

• Silica Sand (quartz) – primary raw material.
• Soda ash (sodium carbonate) – flux to lower melting point.
• Limestone/dolomite – stabilizers.
• Alumina – improves durability.
• Cullet (recycled glass) – improves melting efficiency, reduces cost.
• Colorants – Fe (green), Cobalt (blue), Chromium (emerald green), Sulphur (amber).

 

6. Properties of glass:

1. Chemically insert: it has no inherent power of action, and this property enables the packaging of products without any danger of reaction or spoilage.
2. Non-permeable: glass does not allow gases, odor Vapours and liquids to pass through its walls.
3. Transparents: you can see what you pack in glass.
4. Moldable: glass containers can be molded easily in any shapes or size ranging from a tiny vial to a 13- gallon carboy.
5. Strength: the ultimate strength of glass is very high.
6. Light weight: glass is as light as aluminum roughly one-third the weight of steel or of a density 2 ½ time than of water.
7. Unlimited supply: glass containers can cater to an unlimited market.

 

7. Types of glass: in the US, British, German, Swiss and Indian pharmacopoeias, tests have been laid down to establish the properties of different type glass for use in the packaging of pharmaceuticals. The quality of glass is expressed in terms of its resistance to acid or alkali attack based on this, the three universally accepted standard are-

Soda-lime glass (most common, used for bottles & jars).

Borosilicate glass (heat-resistant, e.g. Pyrex).

Lead glass (crystal glass, decorative).

Aluminosilicate glass (high strength, specialty).

 

Type 3:  all soda lime glasses are mainly type 3 and the limit of alkalinity prescribed for this glass is 8.5 ml of 1.2N acid. In the British, pharmacopoeia, there is a less alkaline glass prescribed as BP58.

 

Type 2: it is same as type 3, but the inside of the glass container is coated at the time o manufacture, usually with sulphur which coating de-alkalises the inside surface to obtain improvement in its chemical resistance.

 

Type 1: this is borosilicate glass, which has the added properly of almost complete neutrality, because of the utility large proportion of borax that comprises this glass, it is harder a more expensive to make than the ordinary soda lime glass, and it is principally used for injectibles and transfusions.

The limit of alkalinity here is 1.0 of 0.2N acid.

Many glass products serve the packaging needs of the pharmaceutical, Diary, liquor, varies food products, soft drinks, cosmetics, chemicals, inks and other industries.

Thinner, lighter and less expensive glass bottles are coming into use.

 

8. Types of Glass Containers

• Bottles (beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics).
• Jars (food, spreads, cosmetics).
• Ampoules/Vials (pharmaceuticals).
• Tubes (cosmetics, chemicals).

 

9. Uses, Applications, Advantages & Disadvantages

• Uses & Applications:
  • Food & beverages (water, juices, soft drinks, beer, wine).
  • Pharmaceuticals & medical (vials, ampoules).
  • Cosmetics (perfume, cream jars).
  • Household products (sauces, oils).
• Advantages:
  • Excellent barrier (gas & moisture-proof).
  • Non-toxic, chemically inert.
  • High transparency → product visibility.
  • Recyclable and eco-friendly.
  • Provides premium look & feel.
• Disadvantages:
  • Heavy & bulky.
  • Fragile (breaks easily).
  • Higher transport & handling cost.
  • Energy-intensive manufacturing.

 

Advantage: the glass container will receive any product whether it is not or cold, without vacuum, sterilized or processed. The glass container does not taint, pollute or affect the quality of its contents. It has high shelf-life.

 

10. Types and Design of Bottles

• Types:
  • Round, square, oval, rectangular.
  • Narrow-neck (beverages), wide-mouth (jars).
• Design Considerations:
  • Strength vs. weight balance.
  • Shape for easy handling & storage.
  • Compatibility with closures.
  • Branding & aesthetics.

11. Closures & Seals

• Closures:
  • Screw caps (metal/plastic).
  • Crown caps (beer, soft drinks).
  • Cork (wine).
  • Rubber stoppers (pharmaceuticals).
• Seals:
  • Heat seals, pressure seals, pilfer-proof caps.
  • Tamper-evident seals for safety.

 

12. Glass Industry & Market Overview

• Industry:
  • Major producers: Owens-Illinois, Ardagh Group, Verallia, Hindustan National Glass (India).
  • Increasing demand in food, beverages, and pharma.
• Market Trends:
  • Premiumization of packaging (alcohol, cosmetics).
  • Growing use of recycled glass (cullet) to reduce cost & carbon footprint.
  • Facing competition from plastic & composite packaging (lighter, cheaper).
  • Sustainability push is reviving glass as an eco-friendly choice.

 

Wood-Based Packaging

 

1. History

• Wood is one of the earliest packaging materials used by humans.
• Ancient civilizations used wooden chests, barrels, and crates for storage and transport.
• In the 19th–20th century, wood was the primary packaging for shipping heavy goods before corrugated and plastic packaging emerged.
• Today, wood is still widely used for industrial, export, and heavy-duty packaging.

 

2. Introduction to Wood Materials

• Wood is a natural, renewable material obtained from trees.
• Composed mainly of cellulose (40–50%), lignin (20–30%), and hemicellulose (20–30%).
• Classified into:
  • Hardwood (from deciduous trees – oak, teak, mahogany; dense and durable).
  • Softwood (from coniferous trees – pine, fir, spruce; lighter, easier to work with).

 

3. Physical Characteristics of Wooden Containers

• High strength-to-weight ratio.
• Excellent rigidity and load-bearing capacity.
• Can be stacked and reused.
• Moisture-sensitive (may warp, crack, or decay).
• Requires treatment against insects and fungi.
• Strong nail-holding and jointing ability.

 

4. Types of Wooden Boxes

1. Nailed Boxes
   • Made from wooden boards joined by nails.
   • Used for heavy-duty packaging (machinery, tools).
2. Wire-Bound Boxes
   • Thin wooden boards bound with wire.
   • Lightweight, foldable, cost-effective.
   • Used for fruits, vegetables, and perishables.
3. Cleated Boxes
   • Made from plywood or lumber with cleats (reinforcing strips) for strength.
   • Suitable for heavy and fragile items.
4. Wooden Crates
   • Open framework structures (slatted).
   • Provide ventilation, visibility, and protection.
   • Common for agricultural produce and bulky items.

 

5. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Timber

• Physical Properties:
  • Colour, grain, texture.
  • Moisture content (affects durability).
  • Density and weight.
• Mechanical Properties:
  • Strength (tensile, compressive, bending).
  • Hardness (resistance to wear).
  • Elasticity (ability to regain shape).
  • Toughness (shock resistance).

 

6. Defects of Timber

• Natural Defects:
  • Knots, shakes, splits, twisted grain.
• Seasoning Defects (improper drying):
  • Warping, cupping, bowing, cracking.
• Biological Defects:
  • Fungal decay, insect attack (termites, borers).

 

7. Methods of Preservation of Timber

• Seasoning (Drying) – natural or kiln drying to reduce moisture.
• Chemical Treatments:
  • Creosote oil (prevents fungal attack).
  • Copper-chrome-arsenic (CCA) treatment.
  • Borax and boric acid solutions.
• Surface Coating – paints, varnishes, oils.
• Pressure Impregnation – forcing preservatives deep into the wood.
• Heat Treatment – reduces biological activity and improves durability.

 

8. Applications

• Export packaging (machinery, automotive parts).
• Agricultural produce (fruits, vegetables in crates).
• Construction material packaging (tiles, glass sheets).
• Heavy-duty storage and transport (defense, industrial goods).

 

UNIT-3

Metals in Packaging

1. History

• Metals have been used in packaging since the 19th century.
• 1810 – Peter Durand patented the tinplate can for food preservation.
• 1858 – William Underwood introduced canned food in the U.S.
• 20th century – aluminium and lightweight alloys became common in packaging.
• Today, metals (steel, aluminium) are widely used for cans, foils, tubes, and closures.

 

2. Introduction of Metals

• Metals are strong, rigid, and provide excellent barrier properties.
• Common metals in packaging: Steel (tinplate, TFS – tin-free steel) and Aluminium.
• Offer mechanical strength, recyclability, and product protection.

Metal:

a. Used in manufacturing all kinds of containers like that of tin and aluminum.

b. Extra rigidity.

c. Highest strength.

d. Non-toxic.

e. Whiteness and shiny.

f. Printable.

g. Deformable to desirable extent.

Limitation:

a. Heavy In weight.

b. Comparatively costlier.

c. Formation is difficult.

 

3. Overview of Extraction Processes

• Steel: Extracted from iron ore (blast furnace → pig iron → steel making → rolling into sheets).
• Aluminium: Extracted from bauxite ore via Bayer process (alumina refining) and Hall-Héroult process (electrolytic reduction → aluminium metal).
• Both metals are converted into thin sheets, foils, or coated products for packaging.

 

4. Important Metals in Packaging & Their Properties

Steel (Tinplate, TFS)

• Physical: High strength, rigid, magnetic.
• Chemical: Resistant to corrosion (coated with tin or chromium).
• Mechanical: Ductile, formable into cans and closures.
• Uses: Food & beverage cans, bottle caps, drums.

Aluminium

• Physical: Lightweight, silvery, malleable, ductile.
• Chemical: Good corrosion resistance (oxide layer protection).
• Mechanical: High formability, non-magnetic, excellent barrier.
• Uses: Beverage cans, foils, trays, tubes, aerosol containers.

 

1. Tin: it is easy to melt, and it mix with copper to make bronze. It is used for cans.

Properties: tin is an element with symbols Sn (stannum), and atomic number 50. It is obtained from the mineral causiterite, where it is occurs as tin dioxide SnO2. The melting point of 231.9681C, specify gravity (gray) of 5.75 or (white) 7.31.

a. Tin is a white metal at room temperature.

b. Tin is soft.

c. Tin is highly corrosion-resistant and fantigue-resistance.

d. Tin is non-toxic.

e. Tin is highly malleable (able to be shaped).

f. Tin alloys easily with other metals.

g. Tin has a low melting point (232C).

h. Tin is easy to recycle).

Uses: tin plate about 50% of tin is used as tinplate for canned foods and drinks, where steel cans are coated with tin to make them rust-resistance, more attractive, and more easily shaped and soldered. Steel alone would rust, and tin alone would be too soft and too expensive.

Solder about 30% of tin is used as a tin-lead solder in electronic parts, pluming, machinery and cars.

Bronze on alloy of copper and tin-used for statues bearing in car engines and heavy machinery, and musical instruments such as bells, symbols and gongs.

Tin oxide is used as a white glaze on pottery (including title) or glass where ware, and can be colored with other metal oxides, plate glass is made by floating molten glass on a bath of molten tin while it solidifies, giving the glass a very flat and polished surface.

This silvery, malleable post-transition metal not easily oxidized in air and issued to coat other metal to prevent corrosion. Another large application for tin is corrosion tin plating of steel.

Because of its low toxicity, tin plated metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cane which are made mostly of steel. Tin is used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion.

 

2. Aluminum: it is second most widely used metal in the world. It is low weight, high strength, superior malleability, easy machining, excellent corrosion resistance and good thermal and electrical conductivity are amongst aluminum’s most important properties.

Background: physically, chemically and mechanically aluminum is a metal like steel, brass, copper, zinc, lead or titanium.

Light weight: it is very light metal with a specific weight of 2.7g/cm3, about a third that of steel.

Corrosion resistance: aluminum naturally generates a protective oxide coating and is highly corrosion resistant.

Electrical and thermal conductivity: aluminum is an excellent heat and electricity conductor and in relation to its weight is almost twice as good as conductor as copper.

Reflectivity: aluminum is a good reflector of visible light as well as heat.

Ductility: aluminum is ductile and has a low melting point and density.

Impermeable and odorless: aluminum foil, even when it is rolled to only 0.007mm thickness.

Recyclability: aluminum is 100 percent recyclable with no downgrading of its quantities.

Non-magnetic: it has non-magnetic properties.

Non-toxic: aluminum is essentially non-toxic and it is used in cooking tencils without any harmful effect on the body.

It is self-heating and self-cooling can are produced.

 

Applications:

• Beverage cans, food cans.
• Blister packs (pharma).
• Household foils, trays, laminates (Tetra Pak).
• Aerosol cans.

Advantages:

• Lightweight (1/3 density of steel).
• Excellent barrier to light, oxygen, moisture.
• 100% recyclable without property loss.
• Attractive metallic luster for branding.

6. Conversion Processes for Sheets

• Rolling – aluminium ingots rolled into thin sheets or foils.
• Coating – sheets are lacquered, enamelled, or laminated for corrosion resistance and printability.
• Forming – sheets pressed/drawn into cans, lids, trays.
• Extrusion – for tubes and aerosols.

 

Metal in packaging

Metals are widely used in the packaging industry for manufacturing all types of containers and other application to food industry. The material in regular use are- tin plates. Aluminum and black plate.

a. Aluminum foil: aluminum in the form of heat seal laminated foil has found extensive application in the packaging of pharmaceutical tablets. It can be classified into two group namely---

1. Foil coated with thermoplastic synthetic resinous compounds.

2. Foil coated with or laminated to thermoplastic film.

3. Film laminated to polyethylene has the advantage of offering double protection that form aluminum foil and for polyethylene because of its good heat seal properties polyethylene is generally used as the innermost layer to produce what is called a weld seal. Reverse printed cellulose acetate laminated to foil offer the advantage of a scuff resistance.

Flexible packaging material commonly used for bakery products can be classified as—

1. Natural cellulose: based such as paper and cellulose. Glossing grease proof paper.

2. Synthetic polymeric based materials such as low and high density polyethylene, polypropylene and their laminated.

3. Metal foil: based aluminum foil laminates and metalized polyester or poly-laminates.

4. Laminated of above 3 group packaging material depending upon their end used.

Properties:

• Extremely thin (0.006–0.2 mm).
• Excellent barrier to moisture, light, gases.
• Flexible and formable.
• Can be laminated with paper/plastic.

Applications:

• Food wrap, confectionery packaging.
• Pharmaceutical blister packs.
• Dairy and beverage closures.
• Insulation and laminates.

 

b. Foils: metal foil is an old packaging material with many new used. It is low made almost exclusively of aluminum through used as laminated or liner for a variety of purpose. It’s is main sphere is still in the production of food being completely moisture and odor proof. Foils makes an excellent container for dehyolraded foods. The principal characteristic which recommend aluminum foils for various packaging application are—

1. It is impervious to moisture and gases.

2. Insect proof.

3. Grease proof.

4. Shrink proof.

5. Non-absorptive, odorless and tasteless.

6. It is hygienic, non-toxic, resistance to corrosion and non-ageing.

Foils are strong folds neatly with precision and easily handled on machine. Foils combined with non-metallic sheets varying from heavy paper board to thin transparent. Cellulose or polythene sheeting offer a large range of container or wrapping to the packaging industry.

 

8. Market & Industry Overview

• Steel Packaging Industry:
  • Dominant for food cans, beverage cans, industrial drums.
  • Major producers: Nippon Steel, ArcelorMittal, Tata Steel.
• Aluminium Packaging Industry:
  • Focus on beverage cans, foils, flexible laminates, aerosols.
  • Major producers: Alcoa, Novelis, Hindalco, Constellium.
• Market Trends:
  • Growing demand in food, beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics.
  • Lightweighting to reduce material usage.
  • Strong recycling push (aluminium recycling saves ~95% energy vs. primary production).
  • Facing competition from plastics and composites, but sustainability drive favors metals.

 

Steel-Based Packaging

 

1. Stainless & Galvanized Steel

• Stainless Steel:
  • Alloy of iron with chromium (10–20%) + nickel.
  • High corrosion resistance, durable, hygienic.
  • Used in reusable containers, kitchenware, medical packaging.
• Galvanized Steel:
  • Steel coated with zinc.
  • Corrosion-resistant, strong.
  • Used in industrial drums, bulk containers, transport packaging.

 

2. Coated Steels

• Tinplate:
  • Steel sheet coated with a thin layer of tin.
  • Combines strength of steel + corrosion resistance of tin.
  • Common for food cans, beverages, bottle closures.
• Tin-Free Steel (TFS):
  • Steel coated with chromium/chromium oxide instead of tin.
  • Lower cost than tinplate, better adhesion for coatings.
  • Used for crown caps, lids, non-food cans.

Metal Cans

1. History of Metal Cans

• 1810 – Peter Durand patented tinplate food cans.
• 1813 – First commercial use in the UK Navy for food preservation.
• Mid-19th century – Can opener invented; improved practicality.
• 20th century – Transition to automated mass production.
• Today – Cans are vital in food, beverage, and industrial packaging.

 

2. Types of Metal Cans

• Three-Piece Can:
  • Made of body + top end + bottom end.
  • Side seam joined by welding or soldering.
  • Used in processed food, paints, chemicals.
• Two-Piece Can:
  • Made from a single sheet (drawn & ironed).
  • Consists of body + one end, with second end added after filling.
  • Common for beverages (soft drinks, beer).
• Welded Cans:
  • Body seam welded for airtightness.
  • Stronger, prevents leakage.
• Seamless Cans:
  • Drawn from a single metal sheet.
  • No side seam, smooth structure.
  • Suitable for aerosols and beverages.

 

3. Can Dimensioning

• Expressed as diameter × height (in mm or inches).
• Example: Beverage can – 211 × 413 (2 11/16 inches diameter × 4 13/16 inches height).
• Important for standardization in filling lines and packaging logistics.

Metal Collapsible Tubes

1. Introduction

• Made from aluminium or tin, used for semi-liquid and viscous products.
• Examples: Toothpaste, ointments, adhesives, cosmetics.

2. Design

• Cylindrical tube body.
• One sealed end (crimped).
• Other end fitted with nozzle + closure cap.

3. Advantages

• Light, hygienic, corrosion-resistant.
• Airtight, prevents contamination.
• Controlled dispensing.
• Good printability.

4. Disadvantages

• Deforms permanently when squeezed.
• Higher cost than plastic tubes.
• Limited capacity for large-volume products.

Aerosol Containers

1. Introduction

• Pressurized containers that dispense product as a fine spray, foam, or mist using a propellant.
• Used for cosmetics, household sprays, paints, medicines.

2. Classification of Aerosols

• Based on product type:
  • Sprays (perfume, deodorant, insecticide).
  • Foams (shaving cream, hair mousse).
  • Powders (medicated sprays).
• Based on propellant system:
  • Compressed gas (CO₂, N₂).
  • Liquefied gas (butane, propane).

3. Advantages

• Easy, controlled, and hygienic dispensing.
• Hermetically sealed → protects product.
• Convenient, ready-to-use format.
• Wide applications (personal care, pharma, industrial).

4. Disadvantages

• Higher packaging cost.
• Flammable propellants (safety concerns).
• Disposal and recycling issues.
• Heavy compared to plastic spray bottles.

 

UNIT-4

Cushioning materials: package cushioning is used to help protect fragile items during shipment. It is common for transport package to be dropped, kiched and impacted. These event may produce potentially damaging shocks, transportation vibration from conveyors, trucks, railroads or aircraft can also damage some items shocks and vibration are controlled by cushioning so that the change of product damage is greatly reduced.

Cushioning is usually inside a shipping container such as corrugated box. It is designed to deform or crush to help keep levels of shocks and vibration below levels that may damage produce inside the box. Depending on the specific situation, package cushioning can often be between 50 to 75 millimeter (two to three inches) thick.

 

Purpose of cushioning material: good are frequency transported from one place to another. These goods are sensitive to mechanical stresses. Hence, the good must be protected from damage due to impact, jointing or vibration in transmit. Ex: glass, ceramic, porecelain, electric products.

 

Mode of action cushioning material: cushioning materials absorb a proportion of the kinetic energy arising when the package suffers an impact.

 

Required characteristics of cushioning material:

1. Recovery: it ensure, that the package contents continue to be protected even when repeatedly subjected, to similar stresses. If recovery is too low. The breaking distance a centered exposure to stress such that resultance kinetic energy can be longer be absorbed and package may be damage.

2. Climate condition: these not must be insensitive to climate conditions such as moisture due to relative humidity, direct solar radiations and extreme variation in temperature. It protect from corrosion.

3. Interactivity: the cushioning material not package content should not interact and possibly impact each other properties.

4. Use of cushioning material should be effective, simple, environmentally compatible and cost effective.

 

Type of cushioning material:

1. Air bag: air bag consists of a plastic film which is inflated or fill cloth air when at not only the static lead generated by contents of package hear upec. Cushioning material.  These are used in containers, rail road, freight cost and trucks.

Advantage:

a. Ease of handling.

b. Non-hygroscopic (moisture resistance).

c. Highly versatile (availability).

d. In sensitive to climate condition.

e. Good recovery.

 

2. Rubble film: they consist of two plastic films in which one is completely flat and other has round indentation. Once the necessary air. These are used inside packaging containers.

 

3. Rubberized fiber cushioning: this cushioning material it made from animal hairs or coconut fibre which are clean converted into material with vulcanized to form rapidly bonded sheet. These are in-sensitive to moisture and temperature and have good recovery. This material provides high quality protection.

 

4. Plastic form cushioning material: these are made from polystyrene (PS) poly-urethene (PU) and polyethylene (PE). These are available in flexible, semi-rigid and rigid forms.

 

5. Loose fill: some cushion products are flowable and are packed loosely around the items in the box. (Starch based foams).

 

6. Corrugated fibre board:

 

Factors considered for selection of cushioning material:

1. Sensitivity classification of the product: it is determined by ‘g’ value. 1g is the acceleration due to gravity 9.81m/sec. the forces, which usually applies to an object on earn.

 

2. Stresses during transport: the stresses arising during transport are second important parameters in a cushioning material. These stresses are highly variable and we do not know what type of stress- it will be the greatest stresses occur when dropped.

 

3. Static area load is important: the cushion is exposed to both dynamic and static forces during transport and cargo handling. During handling only the static stresses are known as the static area load acting upon a cushioning material.

Static area load = weight of packaging content/ working area (kg/cm2).

 

4. Recovery: recovery is the most important factor for the selection of cushioning material. If recovery is higher than the cushioning material will increase breaking distance and will absorb the kinetic energy and protects the product mom mechanical stress.

 

5. Specific weight: specified weight is started in kg/m3. It is a measure of the hardness of cushioning material. If the specific weight is more, then the hardness of cushion Aerials is more.

 

6. Resonance behavior: if the vibration frequency during transport reaches or equals the natural frequency of the packed, the resonance may occur. This will damage the product, so when transporting sensitive items, we should know and adjust the following.

a. Frequency value of the type of transport.

b. Natural frequency of the cushioning material.

c. Natural frequency of the packed product.

 

7. Stress range of the cushioning material: every cushioning material has a stress range. The effectiveness of the cushioning material is within this stress range.

 

 

Biodegradable and Recyclable Packaging Materials

1. Concept of Recyclable Materials for Packaging

• Recyclable packaging: Packaging that can be collected, processed, and re-used to make new packaging or products.
• Goal: Reduce waste, conserve resources, lower environmental footprint.
• Common recyclable packaging materials: paper, board, glass, metals (aluminium, steel), certain plastics (PET, HDPE, PP).
• Recycling cycle: Collection → Sorting → Cleaning → Reprocessing → Manufacturing new products.

 

2. Concept of Biodegradable Materials in Packaging

• Biodegradable packaging: Materials that break down naturally by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae) into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass.
• Timeframe: Weeks to months (faster than conventional plastics, which take hundreds of years).
• Goal: Reduce landfill waste and pollution, support sustainable packaging.
• Examples: Paper, starch-based polymers, polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA).

 

3. Types of Biodegradable and Recyclable Packaging Materials

a) Paper

• Source: Made from wood pulp or recycled fibre.
• Properties: Lightweight, printable, recyclable, biodegradable.
• Uses: Wrappers, cartons, bags, labels.
• Advantage: Easily recyclable & compostable.
• Limitation: Sensitive to moisture.

 

b) Card & Board

• Source: Thick multi-ply paperboard.
• Properties: Stronger than paper, printable, recyclable.
• Uses: Folding cartons, rigid boxes, beverage carriers.
• Advantage: Widely recyclable.
• Limitation: Not suitable for liquids unless laminated.

 

c) Corn Starch

• Source: Derived from maize (corn).
• Properties: Biodegradable, compostable, safe for food contact.
• Uses: Loose-fill packaging (peanuts), trays, films.
• Advantage: Renewable resource, reduces plastic usage.
• Limitation: Sensitive to moisture, limited strength.

 

d) Biodegradable Plastics

• Plastics designed to break down naturally under environmental conditions.

Types of Biodegradable Plastics:

1. PLA (Polylactic Acid)

• Derived from corn, sugarcane.
• Transparent, good rigidity.
• Used in bottles, food trays, disposable cutlery.

2. PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates)

• Produced by microbial fermentation.
• Biodegradable in soil & water.
• Used in medical implants, packaging films.

3. PBS (Polybutylene Succinate)

• Petroleum + bio-based sources.
• Good flexibility, compostable.
• Used in bags, containers, agricultural films.

4. Starch-Based Plastics

• Blend of starch with biodegradable polyesters.
• Used in packaging films, carrier bags.

 

4. Advantages of Biodegradable & Recyclable Packaging

• Environmentally friendly.
• Reduces landfill waste.
• Conserves natural resources.
• Supports circular economy.
• Improves brand image (eco-conscious packaging).

 

5. Limitations

• Higher cost than conventional packaging.
• Limited barrier properties (moisture, gas).
• Biodegradability depends on proper composting conditions.
• Recycling stream contamination if not sorted properly.